Climate Change in Africa
Africa has experienced environmental changes for centuries. The Sahara used to be green, droughts were common, and increased precipitation leading to flooding occurred (Coffey 2020; Ballard 1986). In previous centuries, the data that was collected had some limitations about how climate change directly affected Africa in terms of economic development, famine, migration as scholars can only rely on “historical records of the day – there being no meteorological instrument readings available from Southern Africa for this period,” (Ballard p 361 1986). However, data collection methods have improved over time, and it can be suggested that climate change is a barrier that will continue to impede Africa’s development for the foreseeable future.
Today, the impact of climate change can be seen throughout Africa in both rural and urban areas (Ray 2019). People migrate to urban areas to seek refuge, food, shelter, aid, and employment. “However, people fleeing from climate-affected rural areas will not be safe from climate change in urban areas because these urban areas are environmentally vulnerable to flooding. Some areas are affected by poor land use and choice of building materials, which trap heat and contribute to the urban heat island effect, leading to extreme heat waves with their attendant health risks,” (Ray 2019).
In addition to the effects of climate change in rural and urban areas throughout Africa, there are several other negative effects, including but not limited to: (1) food insecurity; (2) famine; (3) loss of livestock; (4) loss of agriculture; (5) migration; (6) displacement; (7) individual income reduction; (8) reduction in GDP; (9) malnourishment; and (10) land degradation. These ten items, as they relate to climate change, are just some of the issues harming Africa’s development. Many of these issues become exacerbated by other variables. For example, food insecurity is significant as it relates to climate change, but it is being exacerbated by conflict between Russia and Ukraine (Gbadamosi 2022). “The conflict is impacting the global supply chain and causing increased prices to purchase food locally and through receipt of food through imports,” (Cotter p. 14 2022). There is also research about how climate change relates to terrorism, and “there is a growing agreement in both the environment-migration and climate-conflict spheres that intervening variables determine if and how environmental change causes population movements and political violence,” (Freeman p. 351 2017). When climate change occurs, it compounds existing crises and creates an environment for conflict to occur given the competition for and scarcity of resources. This will continue to challenge Africa’s development.
Despite these issues and constraints, there are actions that can be taken to mitigate these impacts. One idea is to invest in improvements in critical infrastructure throughout Africa, specifically water management systems to provide a sustainable water supply. Another example is to improve security for critical infrastructure development and humanitarian aid response given existing terrorist threats. Finally, laws and environmental policies need to be developed and implemented to improve the conditions within the continent.
While climate change will be an ongoing challenge for Africa’s development, technology has advanced over time. There are opportunities to build critical infrastructure that has the durability to withstand extreme weather conditions. A strategy can be developed to address the issues mentioned above (e.g., food security, land degradation). Despite the climate change issues facing Africa, a bright future is possible with innovation, planning, and development.
Climate Change: Short-term goal
Statement of need
Africa has experienced the devasting effects of climate change for centuries and conditions are not improving. Despite the continent only producing two to three percent of global emission, it remains vulnerable. While awareness of these effects is better known by scientists and the public today, there needs to be more immediate action to combat and reverse climate change. In August 2022, “Secretary of State Antony Blinken has been making the case that the U.S. can be a quote "equal partner" with African nations. In that vein, he recently announced a new partnership between the U.S. and the Democratic Republic of Congo in an effort to protect some of that nation's natural treasures,” (Brangham, et al 2022).
Goal: Protect large landscapes
A short-term goal the United States can achieve is to help protect large landscapes, specifically Africa’s tropical rainforest, the Congo Basin Forest.
Policy recommendation, with justification
The policy recommendation is to partner and further enhance an existing local program today through funding, personnel, and resources to protect Africa’s Congo Basin Forest, like the program and partnership between Africa Wildlife Foundation and the Democratic Republic of Congo (Emisave 2022). This needs to be a priority because rainforests absorb carbon emissions. “Nearly 20 percent of the African continent is covered by forests, including the world’s second-largest tropical rainforest, the Congo Basin Forest — known as the “green lung of Africa,” (Africa Wildlife Foundation). By supporting an existing initiative, time and resources can be centered on addressing the issue versus spending money and resources on program design which often takes a year or longer. This policy and solution will be in alignment with Secretary Blinken’s promise and the U.S. can demonstrate specifically how it is helping combat the climate change crisis in Africa.
Climate Change: Medium-term goal
Statement of need
Agriculture is exceptionally vulnerable to change. According to the World Meteorological Organization, “Africa warmed at an average rate of around +0.3 °C/decade between 1991 and 2021, faster than the warming from 1961-1990, at +0.2°C/decade. The year 2021 was either the third or fourth warmest years on record for Africa,” (2022). These drastic changes in temperature are a result of climate change, and agriculture is part of the problem. According to the World Bank, “It currently generates 19–29% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Without action, that percentage could rise substantially as other sectors reduce their emissions. Additionally, 1/3 of food produced globally is either lost or wasted. Addressing food loss and waste is critical to helping meet climate goals and reduce stress on the environment,” (2021).
Goal: Climate-smart agriculture
A medium-term goal the U.S. can achieve is to advance the adoption of climate-smart agriculture in Africa.
Policy recommendation, with justification
The policy recommendation is to invest in a new climate-smart agriculture initiative that includes multiple countries and partners, following the model of the West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAP), which included 13 countries and multiple partners (World Bank 2021). The total project cost of the WAAP was US $51 million (World Bank 2023). This new U.S. policy and initiative will span a period of 10 years. Through this new initiative, the U.S. can help improve food security, reduce carbon emissions, offer new skillsets and technologies to farmers, increase soil health, and decrease poverty by increasing incomes through the development of a new multi-country climate-smart agriculture initiative.
Climate Change: Long-term goal
Statement of need
According to the World Bank, “Electricity is an important step toward enhancing people’s opportunities and choices. Access is key to boosting economic activity and contributes to improving human capital, which, in turn, is an investment in a country’s potential. Without electricity, children can’t do their schoolwork at night. Businesspeople can’t get information on markets or trade with each other. Worse, as the COVID-19 pandemic has shown so starkly, limited access to energy constrains hospital and emergency services, further endangering patients and spoiling precious medicine (Puliti 2022).
There is a significant need for the U.S. to support Africa’s energy transition. First, there is a disproportionate level of energy poverty in sub-Saharan African. Several hundred million people within the continent lack access to energy (Auth 2023). Second, economic development is dependent on reliable access to energy (Auth 2023). Third, to meet the pledges several African countries have made to net zero emissions, they will need to transition to renewable energy (Auth 2023). Supporting Africa’s energy transition addresses climate change, security, public health, economic, and related critical issues.
Goal: Significant investments in technology, infrastructure, and energy transition.
A long-term goal for the U.S. is to provide funding, resources, and related technology and infrastructure to support the continent’s energy transition through 2050.
Policy recommendation, with justification
In December 2022, the White House released the U.S-Africa Partnership in Supporting Conservation, Climate Adaptation and a Just Energy Transition Fact Sheet. Through the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII), the current Administration will offer a minimum of $1.1 billion to support African-led efforts to support conservation, climate adaptation, and energy transition (White House 2022). Some of the foreign policy and development initiatives related to energy transition include but are not limited to: (1) Power Africa; (2) the U.S. Development Finance Corporation (DFC) Energy Access Commitments; (3) DFC’s Climate Mandate; (4) Just Energy Transition Partnerships; and (5) Net Zero World (Auth 2023).
The policy recommendation is for the U.S. is to provide funding, resources, and related technology and infrastructure to support the continent’s energy transition plans through its current foreign policy and development initiatives and future initiatives through 2050. The reason for 25+ year investment is multifold. First, Africa’s population is projected to grow substantially by 2050 and it is critical to provide reliable and climate-friendly energy sources for the population to thrive. Second, it takes considerable time to implement new energy solutions given the complexity involved and the current lack of existing infrastructure in Africa that will need to be developed to support these enhancements. Finally, the U.S. needs to work with individual countries in Africa to align their energy transition objectives; there is not a single solution.
References
Africa Wildlife Foundation. “Climate Change.” AWF. https://www.awf.org/land-protection/climate-change#:~:text=The%20protection%20of%20large%20landscapes,landscapes%20help%20absorb%20carbon%20emissions. Accessed 7 April 2023.
Auth, Katie. “How the U.S. Can Better Support Africa’s Energy Transition.” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 31 January 2023. https://carnegieendowment.org/2023/01/31/how-u.s.-can-better-support-africa-s-energy-transition-pub-88899 Accessed 8 April 2023.
Brangham, William, Cebrian Aranda, Theresa, and Sunkara, Satvi. “Rainforests in the Congo Basin are under threat as the DRC opens land to oil, gas drilling.” PBS. 11 August 2022. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/rainforests-in-the-congo-basin-are-under-threat-as-the-drc-opens-land-to-oil-gas-drilling Accessed 7 April 2023.
Emisave, Rachel. “DRC: AWF on the road to save the Congo Basin forests.” African Wildlife Foundation. 25 November 2022. https://www.awf.org/news/drc-awf-road-save-congo-basin-forests Accessed 7 April 2023.
Puliti, Riccardo. “Putting Africa on the path to universal electricity access.” World Bank. 31 January 2022. https://blogs.worldbank.org/energy/putting-africa-path-universal-electricity-access#:~:text=Access%20is%20key%20to%20boosting,or%20trade%20with%20each%20other. Accessed 7 April 2023.
The White House. “FACT SHEET: U.S-Africa Partnership in Supporting Conservation, Climate Adaptation and a Just Energy Transition.” 13 December 2022. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/12/13/fact-sheet-u-s-africa-partnership-in-supporting-conservation-climate-adaptation-and-a-just-energy-transition/ Accessed 8 April 2023.
World Bank. “Climate Smart Agriculture. 5 April 2021. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climate-smart-agriculture Accessed 7 April 2023.
World Bank. “West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP).” 2023. https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P094084 Accessed 7 April 2023.
World Meteorological Organization. “State of Climate in Africa highlights water stress and hazards.” WMO. 8 September 2022. https://public.wmo.int/en/media/press-release/state-of-climate-africa-highlights-water-stress-and-hazards#:~:text=%E2%80%9CTemperature%20increase%2C%20heat%20waves%2C,Nations%20Sustainable%20Development%20Goals%20(SDGs) Accessed 7 April 2023.
Ballard, Charles. “Drought and Economic Distress: South Africa in the 1800s.” The Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 17, no. 2, 1986, pp. 359–78. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/204770. Accessed 2 Apr. 2023.
Coffey, Donovan. “Could the Sahara ever be green again?” 27 September 2020. Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/will-sahara-desert-turn-green.html Accessed 2 April 2023.
Cotter, Heather R. “Three Decades of Conflict and Multiple, Concurrent Crises: Past, Present, and Future Challenges Impacting Somalia’s Stability.” Arizona State University IAL 592. December 2022.
Freeman, Laura. “Environmental Change, Migration, and Conflict in Africa: A Critical Examination of the Interconnections.” The Journal of Environment & Development, vol. 26, no. 4, 2017, pp. 351–74. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26392658. Accessed 2 Apr. 2023.
Gbadamosi, Nosmot. “War in Ukraine Is Worsening East Africa’s Food Crisis.” 11 May 2022. https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/05/11/ukraine-russia-war-agriculture-food-hunger-crisis-east-africa/. Accessed 2 April 2023.
Ray, Charles A. “The Impact of Climate Change on Africa’s Economies.” FPRI. 29 October 2021. https://www.fpri.org/article/2021/10/the-impact-of-climate-change-on-africas-economies/ Accessed 1 April 2023
Welsh, Caitlin. “The Effects of Climate Change in Africa.” Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 2021. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep37450. Accessed 2 Apr. 2023.